Qing China's perspectives on India, 1750--1847

Concentrating on the case of India, this dissertation examines how Qing rulers, officials, and scholars gathered and interpreted information about the outside world, and how this guided actual or proposed policies. It examines official correspondence and private geographic and statecraft scholarship to outline how India was described in various religious and intellectual traditions of the empire, and in intelligence from the Tibetan, Xinjiang, and maritime frontiers. Based on an analysis of Qing geographic methods, strategic thought and bureaucratic procedures, this dissertation argues that the framework guiding perspectives on India shifted between 1750 and 1847 from a frontier policy to the beginnings of a foreign policy. Frontier policy divided the outside world into discrete units tied to a particular frontier, and analyzed them largely according to local informants and sources. Regional differences in terminology and intelligence made it difficult to commensurate all available information into a single picture. However, by the 1840s Chinese statecraft scholars, particularly Wei Yuan, were able to integrate most available geographic information, and on this basis proposed for the first time a foreign policy that put all imperial frontiers to the service of a single strategic end: the destruction of the British empire in India. Chapter One examines knowledge of India circulating within the empire around 1750. Chapter Two examines the views of India held by the Qianlong emperor and his court, and their influence on private scholarship. Chapter Three examines official cartography and its relationship to Jesuit world maps. Collectively, these chapters argue that Qing scholarship was characterized by 'geographic agnosticism,' considering but not wholly endorsing a range of conflicting geographic conceptions, leading to a great variety of idiosyncratic individual worldviews but no basis for a consensus about the outside world. Chapters Four and Five examine the Qing bureaucracy's response to the rise of British India across several frontiers, paying particular attention to the Macartney embassy and its legacy. Chapter Six examines the growth of private scholarship about India. Chapters Seven and Eight examine the Opium War and its aftermath, showing how the strategic importance of India was grasped and responded to in private statecraft-oriented writings.